ARCHITECTURE
England
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LINCOLN CATHEDRAL

Main front of Lincoln Cathedral
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Lincoln Cathedral
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Lincoln Cathedral (in full The Cathedral Church of the
Blessed Virgin Mary of Lincoln, or sometimes St. Mary's
Cathedral) is a historic Anglican cathedral in Lincoln in
England and seat of the Bishop of Lincoln in the Church of
England. It was reputedly the tallest building in the world
for 249 years (1300–1549). The central spire collapsed in
1549 and was not rebuilt. It is highly regarded by
architectural scholars; the eminent Victorian writer John
Ruskin declared, "I have always held... that the cathedral
of Lincoln is out and out the most precious piece of
architecture in the British Isles and roughly speaking worth
any two other cathedrals we have."

Lincoln Cathedral
History
Remigius de Fécamp, first bishop of Lincoln, ordered the
first cathedral to be built in Lincoln, in 1072. Before
that, St. Mary's Church in Lincoln was a mother church but
not a cathedral, and the seat of the diocese was at
Dorchester Abbey in Dorchester-on-Thames, Oxfordshire.
Lincoln was more central to a diocese that stretched from
the Thames to the Humber. Bishop Remigius built the first
Lincoln Cathedral on the present site, finishing it in 1092
and then dying two days before it was to be consecrated on
May 9 of that year. In 1141, the timber roofing was
destroyed in a fire. Bishop Alexander rebuilt and expanded
the cathedral, but it was destroyed by an earthquake about
forty years later, in 1185.
After the earthquake, a new bishop was appointed. The new
bishop was St Hugh of Lincoln, originally from Avalon,
France; he began a massive rebuilding and expansion
programme. Rebuilding began at the east end of the
cathedral, with an apse and five small radiating chapels.
The central nave was then built in the Early English Gothic
style. Lincoln Cathedral soon followed other architectural
advances of the time — pointed arches, flying buttresses and
ribbed vaulting were added to the cathedral. This allowed
the creation and support of larger windows. The cathedral is
the 3rd largest in Britain (in floor space) after St Paul's
and York Minster, being 484 feet (148 m) by 271 feet (83 m).
It is Lincolnshire's largest building, and until 1549 the
spire was reputedly the tallest medieval tower in Europe,
though the exact height has been a matter of debate.
Accompanying the cathedral's large bell, Great Tom of
Lincoln, is a quarter-hour striking clock. The clock was
installed in the early 19th century.
There are thirteen bells in
the south-west tower, two in the north west tower, and five
in the central tower (including Great Tom). The matching
Dean's Eye and Bishop’s Eye were added to the cathedral
during the late Middle Ages. The former, the Dean's Eye in
the north transept dates from the 1192 rebuild begun by St
Hugh, it was finally completed in 1235. The latter, the
Bishop’s eye, in the south transept was re-constructed 100
years later in 1330. A contemporary record, “The Metrical
Life of St Hugh”, refers to the meaning of these two windows
(one on the dark, north, side and the other on the light,
south, side of the building):
For north represents the
devil, and south the Holy Spirit and it is in these
directions that the two eyes look. The bishop faces the
south in order to invite in and the dean the north in order
to shun; the one takes care to be saved, the other takes
care not to perish. With these Eyes the cathedral’s face is
on watch for the candelabra of Heaven and the darkness of
Lethe (oblivion).
After the additions of the
Dean’s eye and other major Gothic additions it is believed
some mistakes in the support of the tower occurred, for in
1237 the main tower collapsed. A new tower was soon started
and in 1255 the Cathedral petitioned Henry III to allow them
to take down part of the town wall to enlarge and expand the
Cathedral, including the rebuilding of the central tower and
spire. They replaced the small rounded chapels (built at the
time of St Hugh) with a larger east end to the cathedral.
This was to handle the increasing number of pilgrims to the
Cathedral, who came to worship at the shrine of Hugh of
Lincoln.
In 1290 Eleanor of Castile
died. As his Queen Consort of England, King Edward I decided
to honour her with an elegant funeral procession. After
embalming, which in the thirteenth century involved
evisceration, Eleanor's viscera were buried in Lincoln
cathedral, and Edward placed a duplicate of the Westminster
tomb there. The Lincoln tomb's original stone chest
survives; its effigy was destroyed in the 17th century and
replaced with a 19th-century copy. On the outside of Lincoln
Cathedral are two prominent statues often identified as
Edward and Eleanor, but these images were heavily restored
in the 19th century and probably were not originally
intended to depict the couple.
Between the years 1307 and 1311 the central tower was raised
to its present height of 83 m (271 feet). The western towers
and front of the cathedral were also improved and
heightened. At this time, a tall lead-encased wooden spire
topped the central tower but was blown down in a storm in
1548. With its spire, the tower reputedly reached a height
of 525 feet (160 m) (which would have made it the world's
tallest structure, surpassing the Great Pyramid of Giza,
which held the record for almost 4,000 years). This height
is agreed by most sources but has been doubted by others.
Other additions to the cathedral at this time included its
elaborate carved screen and the 14th century misericords, as
was the Angel choir. For a large part of the length of the
cathedral, the walls have arches in relief with a second
layer in front to give the illusion of a passageway along
the wall. However the illusion does not work, as the
stonemason, copying techniques from France, did not make the
arches the correct length needed for the illusion effect.
In 1398 John of Gaunt and
Katherine Swynford founded a chantry there to pray for their
souls, and in the 15th century the building of the cathedral
turned to chantry or memorial chapels. The chapels next to
the Angel Choir were built in the Perpendicular style, with
an emphasis on strong vertical lines, which survive today in
the window tracery and wall panelling.
Magna Carta
The Bishop of Lincoln, Hugh of Wells, was one of the
signatories to the Magna Carta and for hundreds of years the
Cathedral has held one of the four remaining copies of the
original which is now securely displayed in Lincoln Castle.
There are three other surviving copies; two at the British
Library and one at Salisbury Cathedral.
In 2009 the Lincoln Magna
Carta was loaned to the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library
in Simi Valley, California.
Little Saint Hugh
In August of 1255 the body of an 8-year old boy was
found in a well in Lincoln. He had been missing for nearly a
month. This incident became the source of a blood libel in
the city, with Jews accused of his abduction, torture, and
murder. Many Jews were arrested and eighteen were hanged.
The boy became named as Little Saint Hugh to distinguish him
from Saint Hugh of Lincoln.
The cathedral benefited
from these events because Hugh was seen as a martyr, and
many devotees came to the city and cathedral to venerate
him. Chaucer mentions the case in "The Prioress's Tale" and
a ballad was written about it in 1783. In 1955 a plaque was
put up near “the remains of the shrine of ‘Little St Hugh’”
in the cathedral, that decries the “Trumped up stories of
‘ritual murders’ of Christian boys by Jewish communities.”
The Lincoln Imp
One of the stone carvings within the Cathedral is the
Lincoln Imp. There are several variations of the legend
surrounding the figure.
According to 14th-century
legend, two mischievous creatures called imps were sent by
Satan to do evil work on Earth. After causing mayhem
elsewhere in Northern England the two imps headed to Lincoln
Cathedral where they smashed tables and chairs and tripped
up the Bishop. An angel appeared in the Angel Choir and
ordered them to stop. One of the imps sat atop a stone
pillar and started throwing rocks at the angel whilst the
other imp cowered under the broken tables and chairs. The
angel turned the first imp to stone allowing the second imp
to escape. The imp that turned to stone, the Lincoln Imp,
can still be found, frozen in stone, sitting atop his stone
column in the Angel Choir.
Wren library
The Wren Library houses a rare collection of over 277
manuscripts, including the text of the Venerable Bede.
Rose windows
Lincoln Cathedral features two major rose windows, which
are a highly uncommon feature among medieval architecture in
England. On the north side of the cathedral there is the
“Dean’s Eye” which survives from the original structure of
the building and on the south side there is the “Bishop’s
Eye” which was most likely rebuilt circa 1325-1350. This
south window is one of the largest examples of curvilinear
tracery seen in medieval architecture. Curvilinear tracery
is a form of tracery where the patterns are continuous
curves. This form was often done within pointed arches and
squared windows because those are the easiest shapes, so the
circular space of the window was a unique challenge to the
designers. A solution was created that called for the circle
to be divided down into smaller shapes that would make it
simpler to design and create. Curves were drawn within the
window which created four distinct areas of the circle. This
made the spaces within the circle where the tracery would go
much smaller, and easier to work with. This window is also
interesting and unique in that the focus of the tracery was
shifted away from the center of the circle and instead
placed in other sections. The glazing of the window was
equally as difficult as the tracery for many of the same
reason; therefore, the designers made a decision to cut back
on the amount of iconography within the window. Most
cathedral windows during this time displayed many colorful
images of the bible; however at Lincoln there are very few
images. Some of those images that can be seen within the
window include saints Paul, Andrew, and James.
Wooden trusses
Wooden trusses offer a solid and reliable source of
support for building because through their joints they are
able to resist damage and remain strong. Triangles are the
strongest shape because no matter where the force is being
placed on them they are able to use their three joints to
their fullest extent in order to withstand the forces being
placed on it. Making trusses with triangles inside of larger
triangles adds even more strength, as seen in Lincoln’s
choir. The design of all wooden trusses is a tedious task as
there are many different things that need to be considered
while building these supports. There are many different ways
that the trusses can fail if they are not designed or built
properly, therefore it is crucial to design trusses that
suit a specific building with specific needs in mind. The
simplest form of a truss is an A frame; however, the great
amount of outward thrust generated here oftentimes causes
the truss to fail. The addition of a tie beam creates a
triangular shape, although this beam can sometimes sag if
the overall truss is too large. Neither one of these
examples would have been suitable for Lincoln due to the
sheer size of the roof. They would have failed to support
the building, therefore collar beams and queen posts were
added to the design in order to help prevent sagging. To
protect against wind damage, braces were added. Secondary
rafters were also added to the design to ensure that the
weight was equally distributed. Saint Hugh’s Choir has a
total of thirty six trusses keeping the roof in place, and
it is held up entirely by using its own weight and forces.
Vaults
One major architectural feature of Lincoln Cathedral are
the spectacular vaults. The varying vaults within the
cathedral are said to be both original and experimental.
Simply comparing the different vaults seen in Lincoln
clearly shows that a great deal of creativity was involved
when designing the cathedral. The vaults especially, clearly
define the experimental aspect seen at Lincoln. There are
several different kinds of vaults that differ between the
nave, aisles, choir, and chapels of the cathedral. Along the
North Aisle there is a continuous ridge rib with a regular
arcade that ignores the bays. Meanwhile, on the South Aisle
there is a discontinuous ridge rib that puts an emphasis on
each separate bay. The North West Chapel has quadripartite
vaults and the South Chapel has vaults that stem from one
central support columns. The use of sexpartite vaults
allowed for more natural light to enter the cathedral
through the clerestory windows, which were placed inside of
each separate bay. Saint Hugh’s Choir exhibits extremely
unusual vaults. It is a series of asymmetrical vaults that
appear to almost be a diagonal line created by two ribs on
one side translating into only a single rib on the other
side of the vault. This pattern divides up the space of the
vaults and bays, perfectly placing the emphasis on the bays.
The chapter house vaults are also interesting. It is a
circular building with one column where twenty ribs extend
from. Each separate area of Lincoln can be identified solely
by the different vaults of the space. Each vault, or each
variation of the vault, is fresh and original. They
illustrate innovative thinking and great creativity. There
is no doubt that these vaults, and all of the other
experimental aspects of Lincoln came with a slight risk;
however the results are truly wonderful.
Today
Interior view, at the eastern end of St. Hugh's
ChoirAccording to the cathedral website, over £1 million a
year is spent on keeping the cathedral in shape; the most
recent project completed has been the restoration of the
West Front in 2000. About ten years ago it was discovered
that the flying buttresses on the east end were no longer
connected to the adjoining stonework, and repairs were made
to prevent collapse. The most recent problem was the
discovery that the stonework of the Dean's Eye window in the
transept was crumbling, meaning that a complete
reconstruction of the window has had to be carried out
according to the conservation criteria set out by the
International Council on Monuments and Sites.
There was a period of great
anxiety when it emerged that the stonework only needed to
shift 5mm for the entire window to collapse. Specialist
engineers removed the window's tracery before installing a
strengthened, more stable replacement. In addition to this
the original stained glass was cleaned and set behind a new
clear isothermal glass which offers better protection from
the elements. By April 2006 the renovation project was
completed at a cost of £2 million.
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Lincoln Cathedral

Main door, Lincoln Cathedral

Main door, Lincoln Cathedral

Lincoln Cathedral. In the
nave
Lincoln Cathedral. Aisle at the east end
WESTMINSTER ABBEY

Westminster
Abbey
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Westminster Abbey
Westminster Abbey, London church that is the site of
coronations and other ceremonies of national significance.
It stands just west of the Houses of Parliament in the
Greater London borough of Westminster. Situated on the
grounds of a former Benedictine monastery, it was refounded
as the Collegiate Church of St. Peter in Westminster by
Queen Elizabeth I in 1560. Legend relates that Saberht, the
first Christian king of the East Saxons, founded a church on
a small island in the River Thames, then known as Thorney
but later called the west minster (or monastery), and that
this church was miraculously consecrated by St. Peter. It is
certain that about ad 785 there was a small community of
monks on the island and that the monastery was enlarged and
remodeled by St. Dunstan about 960.
Edward the Confessor built
a new church on the site, which was consecrated on December
28, 1065. It was of considerable size and cruciform in plan.
In 1245 Henry III pulled down the whole of Edward’s church
(except the nave) and replaced it with the present abbey
church in the pointed Gothic style of the period. The design
and plan were strongly influenced by contemporary French
cathedral architecture.
The rebuilding of the
Norman-style nave was begun by the late 1300s under the
architect Henry Yevele and continued intermittently until
Tudor times. The Early English Gothic design of Henry III’s
time predominates, however, giving the whole church the
appearance of having been built at one time. The chapel of
Henry VII (begun c. 1503), in Perpendicular Gothic style,
replaced an earlier chapel and is famed for its exquisite
fan vaulting. Above the original carved stalls hang the
banners of the medieval Order of the Bath.
The western towers were the
last addition to the building. They are sometimes said to
have been designed by Sir Christopher Wren, but they were
actually built by Nicholas Hawksmoor and John James and
completed about 1745. The choir stalls in the body of the
church date from 1847, and the high altar and reredos were
remodeled by Sir George Gilbert Scott in 1867. Scott and J.L.
Pearson also restored the north transept facade in the
1880s. The abbey was heavily damaged in the bombings that
ravaged London in World War II, but it was restored soon
after the war.
Since William the
Conqueror, every British sovereign has been crowned in the
abbey except Edward V and Edward VIII, neither of whom was
crowned. Many kings and queens are buried near the shrine of
Edward the Confessor or in Henry VII’s chapel. The last
sovereign to be buried in the abbey was George II (died
1760); since then they have been buried at Windsor Castle.
The abbey is crowded with
the tombs and memorials of famous British subjects, such as
Sir Isaac Newton, David Livingstone, and Ernest Rutherford.
Part of the south transept is well known as Poets’ Corner
and includes the tombs of Geoffrey Chaucer, Ben Jonson (who
was buried upright), John Dryden, Robert Browning, and many
others. The north transept has many memorials to British
statesmen. The grave of the “Unknown Warrior,” whose remains
were brought from Flanders (Belgium) in 1920, is in the
centre of the nave near the west door.
Beside the abbey is the
renowned Westminster School. In 1987 Westminster Abbey, St.
Margaret’s Church, and the Houses of Parliament were
collectively designated a UNESCO World Heritage site.

Westminster Abbey
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Westminster Abbey, the site of coronations, royal
funerals, and other state ceremonies, is dutifully treated
in the 2nd edition (1777–84) of Encyclopædia Britannica. It
forms part four of the “London” article’s unsigned chapter
on public buildings. The following text is presented in
modern typography for ease in reading but otherwise retains
the original spelling, capitalization, punctuation, and
italics—including typographical errors.
Westminster abbey was
founded in 610, but soon after ruined by the Danes. It was
rebuilt in 1053 by the recommendation of a religious hermit,
who pretended to bring a commission for that purpose from
God himself. It was endowed with great privileges by king
Edward the Confessor; who had them confirmed by a bull from
pope Nicholas. The king also thought proper to insert that
bull of confirmation in the charter granted by himself; in
which bull and charter there is a remarkable clause, setting
forth, “That the place where the said church and monastery
were built, was anciently the seat of kings: therefore, says
the pope, by the authority of God and his holy apostles and
this Roman see, and our own, we grant, permit, and most
solidly confirm, that hereafter for ever, it be the place of
the king’s constitution or coronation, and consecration; the
repository of the royal crown and ensigns of majesty; and a
perpetual habitation of monks, who shall be subject to no
other person at all, but only to the king himself.”
Westminster abbey is at
present a collegiate church; and the dean and 12
prebendaries were incorporated by the name of the dean and
chapter of the collegiate church of St Peter, Westminster,
by queen Elizabeth, who also placed therein a school. The
church is a magnificent pile of Gothic building, and has
been adorned on the outside with the statues and figures of
all the princes that have contributed towards the finishing
of it. But this abbey suffered so much at the dissolution of
the monastery, and during the civil commotions in the time
of Charles I. that it gradually decayed almost to the
present time, when the parliament ordered a thorough
reparation at the national expence. In consequence of this
interposition, the whole fabric has been new-coated, except
that part called king Henry VII.’s chapel, and the west end
has been made more magnificent by the addition of two towers
rebuilt in as masterly a manner as any other part of the
abbey, but the beautiful carving and the statues with which
it was once adorned are now lost.
The extent of this building
is 360 feet within the walls, 72 feet broad at the nave, and
195 at the cross. The Gothic arches and side ailes are
supported by 48 pillars of grey marble, each composed of
clusters of very slender ones, and covered with ornaments.
The grand entrance into the choir is by a pair of fine iron
gates, on each side of which is a very magnificent tomb. The
floor is paved with the handsomest blue and white marble.
The stalls are covered with Gothic acute arches, supported
by small iron pillars, and painted purple. At the east end
is the altar, made of a beautiful piece of marble, the gift
of queen Anne, inclosed by a curious balustrade, and upon a
pavement of porphyry, jasper, Lydian, and serpentine stones,
laid in the Mosaic stile, at the expence of abbot Ware, A.
D. 1272; and is said to be one of the most beautiful of its
kind in the world.
On each side of this altar
a door opens into St. Edward’s chapel; round which are ten
other chapels, ranging from the north to the south cross
ailes, and are dedicated, 1. To St Andrew. 2. To St Michael.
3. To St John Evangelist. 4. Islip’s chapel. 5. To St John
Baptist. 6. To St Paul. 7. Henry V.’s chapel. 8. To St
Nicholas. 9. To St Edmund. 10. To St Benedict.
In St Edward’s chapel are
still to be seen the remains of his shrine; which, though
now in obscurity, and robbed of all its riches and lustre,
was once esteemed the glory of England, so far as art and
riches could make it. Here are the tombs of king Edward I.
and several other kings and queens of England; and here also
is shown the famous chair in which the kings of Scotland
used to be crowned at Scoon. Henry V.’s chapel is divided
from St Edward’s by an iron screen, on each side of which
are statues as big as life.--St Andrew’s chapel, which is
next the north cross, and the others which surround the
choir, are crowded with the monuments of noble personages,
worth the attention of the curious.--At the corner of St
Benedict’s chapel, an iron gate opens into the south cross
aile; which from the number of monuments erected therein to
celebrated English poets, has obtained the name of the poets
corner: though here we find a most magnificent monument
erected at the south end in memory of the late John duke of
Argyle and Greenwich; another to William Camden the
antiquarian; and others to the celebrated divine Dr Isaac
Barrow, to Thomas Parr who died at the age of 152 years, &c.
The south aisle is adorned
with 19 curious monuments of the pious, the brave, and the
learned. Amongst whom, next the entrance at the west end, is
a noble monument, erected by order of parliament, in honour
of the brave captain Cornwall. And turning northward from
the west door, we view 48 more monuments worthy of notice.
On the east of the abbey,
and which, though separate from the other chapels in the
choir, seems to be one and the same building with the abbey,
stands the chapel of king Henry VII. which that king founded
in the year 1502, and was at that time styled the wonder of
the world, and is now one of the most expensive remains of
the ancient English taste and magnificence. There is no
looking upon it without admiration: it conveys an idea of
the fine taste of Gothic architecture in that age: and the
inside is so noble, majestic, and of such curious
workmanship, that it would take a volume to describe each
part with justice and propriety.
Encyclopædia
Britannica
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Westminster Abbey. The Great West Door and towers, as
seen from Tothill Street
The north entrance of Westminster Abbey.

Westminster Abbey. Ten Christian martyrs depicted in
statues above the Great West Door

Westminster Abbey. Ten Christian martyrs depicted in
statues above the Great West Door

Westminster Abbey. Interior

Westminster Abbey with a procession of Knights of the
Bath, by
Canaletto, 1749.
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